Comparative Analysis, Haroun and the sea of stories and Inanna Essay Example

Comparative Analysis, Haroun and the sea of stories and Inanna Paper I will be comparing and contrasting The decent of Inanna which is part of the cycle of many other stories in this book which date back to around 5000 years. Wolkstein and Kramer take us back to these years when humans found different ways to communicate before language was introduced; through sound, like the repetition in Inanna which brings a musical beat into mind, body gestures, like the shadow warrior Mudra, and pictures, like the cuneiforms shown in Inanna. This book was interpreted by a folklorist who collected and recorded the tales, legends and songs of modern contemporary societies and a cuneiformist who has restored and translated the written tales, legends and songs from the Sumerians times. On the surface, Haroun and the Sea of Stories appears to be a simplistic, light-hearted novel that reads almost like a childrens tale. Beneath the surface, however, something much more profound is stirring, which brings us on an adventure where stories have been passed on and interpreted to create a mythical allusion of a sea of stories as Salman Rashdie wrote. This allusion is shown on page 72. He looked into the water and saw that it was made up of a thousand thousand thousand and one different currents, each one a different colour, weaving in and out of one another like liquid tapestry of breath taking complexity; and Iff explained that these were the streams of story, that each colored strand represented and contained a single tale. Different parts of the Ocean contained different sorts of stories, and as all the stories that had ever been told and many that were still in the process of being invented could be found here, the Ocean of the Streams of Story was in fact the biggest library in the universe. And because the stories were held here in fluid form, they retained the ability to change, to become a new version of themselves, to join up with the other stories and so become yet other stories. Both passages, the decent of Inanna and the dark ship play an important part in Inannas and Harouns character development. Inanna wants to open her wisdom to the great below, since this is the place where Inanna can obtain the knowledge of death and rebirth, life and status that will make her honorable and a guide to the land. From the great above she opened her ear to the great below. We will write a custom essay sample on Comparative Analysis, Haroun and the sea of stories and Inanna specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Comparative Analysis, Haroun and the sea of stories and Inanna specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Comparative Analysis, Haroun and the sea of stories and Inanna specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Her ear refers to wisdom since it is coiled like a labyrinth which takes in sound and begins to transform the imperceptible into meaning shown on page 52. Haroun also has to descend to the South Pole to fight the antagonist Khattan-Shud (who personifies censorship) to save his father and everyone else from having story droughts. This can be compared to Inannas decent since they have the same environment on their journeys both having dry, dark and cold atmospheres. The waters of the ocean were growing thicker by the mile, thicker and colder; many of the streams of story were full of a dark slow moving substance that looked like molasses. In both stories there is a motif of light and dark which are always being brought into perspective, usually through the characters or places. They often complement each other to form a whole, like the ying-yang symbol. For example, Inanna who is Queen of Heaven and earth does not have knowledge about the underworld; she therefore descends to come in contact with the unconscious, rejected dark side of herself who can be considered a witch since she has been unloved, abandoned, forced to rule the underworld which causes her to be very lonely, angry and greedy. Ereshkigal then takes all of Inannas accomplishments to show her what it is like to have nothing. When she entered the seventh gate, from her body the royal robe was removed. Inanna asked: what is this? She was told: quiet, Inanna, the ways of the underworld are perfect. They may not be questioned. Naked and bowed low, Inanna entered the throne room. (60) Ereshkigal, the darker side of Inanna can be compared to Harouns shadow, which can represent the loss of his mother. Once Haroun makes the connection that Mr. Sengupta has taken the form of the antagonist Khattan-Shud it creates a foreshadowing of a realisation that implies not merely that stories mirror reality but expose truth and shape of opinion. This gives Haroun the strength to fight the Cultmaster due to the fact that Mr. Sengupta was the reason his mother left. I know you, Haroun shouted. Youre him. Youre Mr. Sengupta and you stole my mother and you left the fat lady behind and youre a sniveling, driveling, mangy, stingy, measly, weaselly clerk. Where are you hiding her? Maybe shes a prisoner on this ship! Come on hand her over. ( 155) The Cultmaster personifies censorship and evil and it is inherited in his characters tone (monotone) which is ironic since his name, Khattan-Shud means end giving an impression that stories are ending and starting all the time during this book. He has good reason to try and put an end to stories which is thats stories have too much power, they can create many disasters and cause disruption due to the fact that one person could have mingled with a story instead of sticking to the facts. The Cultmaster came over and peered into Harouns face. What brought you up here eh? He asked in his dull dull voice. Stories I suppose. He said the word stories as if it were the rudest, most contemptible word in the language. What starts with stories ends with spying, and thats a serious charge, boy, no charge more serious. Youd have done better to keep your feet on the ground but you had your head in the air. Youd have done better to stick to facts, but you were stuffed with stories. Youd have done better to have stayed home, but up you came. Stories make trouble. An Ocean of stories is and Ocean of trouble. (155) Time is important in both stories, half of the year Inanna and Dumuzi will be united, trees will blossom but as the seasons change, Dumuzi will enter a period of inactivity, quietude and meditation due to the times of harvest. You will go to the underworld half the year, your sister, since she has asked will go the other half. On the day you are called, that day you will be taken. On that day Geshtianna is called, that day you will be set free. (87) In Haroun and the sea of stories, seasons differentiate between the guppies which symbolize spring since it is always dry, hot and sunny in their land and the chupwalas symbolize winter due to the rain and darkness. Also the cycle of life is shown since the story starts and ends almost the same way as if none of it had ever happened as if it were a dream. In the north of the sad city stood mighty factories in which (so Im told) sadness was actually manufactured, packaged and sent all over the world, which never seemed to get enough of it. Black smoke poured out of the chimneys of sadness factories and hung over the city like bad news. (15) At the end of the novel, as the citizens of the city Kahani rejoice over their newfound name, water pours from the sky, suggesting the lasting happiness that language can bring. Showing the memory of the name Kahani, which happens to mean story, as the one thing that can make a sad city happy, Rushdie implies the vast importance of freedom of speech and words. Looks like the old city finally learnt how to have fun, Rashid grinned. But why? Haroun asked. Nothings really changed, has it? Look, the sadness factories are still in production, you can see the smoke; and almost everybody is still poor has something happened while weve been away? A miracle for example? Its just the rain, replied the old bird. Its making everybody happy. (208) Marginalization is seen in both books, the norm in Inanna is the male, for example Enki and Ereshkigal compliment each other. Enki is conscious, has the power of life and light whereas Ereshkigal is unconscious, has the power of death and darkness. The human race obviously is more comfortable in the daytime then at night due to the fact that we are not nocturnal, we cannot see very well in the dark which brings a sense of insecurity. The male has been the norm in our society since the beginning of human life. The man is seen as the one with reason, authority and strength whereas the woman is seen as the one with emotion, mercy and weakness which makes her inferior. In Haroun and the sea of stories, story tellers and speech are the norm and silence, shadows and repression are the other. Once Rashid has his story telling drought, there is a power shift and silence, shadows and repression become the norm. The shadows still have a life of their own; however it is no longer regarded as the bad side of a person. This transition can even be seen in Harouns thoughts in which gruesome combat turns into something as beautiful as a dance. And as they fought each other, standing toe to toe, Haroun began to think of their combat as a dance of great beauty and grace, a dance danced in perfect silence because the music was playing inside the dancers heads (124). Haroun explains this a little further, he dance of the Shadow Warrior showed him that silence had its own grace and beauty (just as speech could be graceless and ugly); and that Action could be as noble as Words; and that creatures of darkness could be as lovely as the children of the light (125). Haroun connects two opposite things, such as Action and Words and connect them with could be, indicating that he generally does not associate these actions with being noble. Haroun is only able to make these connections due to the shadow warrior, just a couple of pages before, shadows were seen as doom, however this idea subverts itself and turns the idea into grace and beauty. In conclusion, both stories have many similarities however they are portrayed in different ways to express different meanings. Inannas stories were some of the first stories ever told over 5 000 years ago, however since then many stories have been introduced and mixed together. Representing stories by an ocean is no mistake on Rushdies part, since water is essential for life, and oceans flow and mix together in much the same way that stories do.

6 Things To Know About How To Buy a Telescope

6 Things To Know About How To Buy a Telescope Telescopes give skygazers a great way to see magnified views of objects in the sky. Buying that first (or second or fifth) telescope is an exciting moment, so its a great idea to be fully informed before heading out to the stores.  Theres a lot to learn and a telescope is a long-term investment, so its important to learn the terminology. In addition, its always good to know what types of objects are of interest. Some people mainly want to observe planets, while others are into deep sky objects. Those targets help determine which telescope to get. A telescope with eyepiece (lower end), finderscope,and a good mount are important for long-term enjoyment of stargazing.   Andy Crawford/Getty Images Power Is Overrated A good telescope is not JUST  about the â€Å"power†. If a telescope ad touts claims about 300X or other numbers about the â€Å"power† the scope has, watch out! High power sounds great, but, there’s a catch. High magnification makes an object appear larger, which is important. However, the light gathered by the scope is spread over a larger area which creates a fainter image in the eyepiece. So, its important to keep that in mind. Also, high-powered scopes have specific requirements for eyepieces, so its a good idea to check out what eyepieces work best with a given instrument. Sometimes, lower power provides a better viewing experience, particularly if observers are checking out objects that are spread out across the sky, such as clusters or nebulae.   Telescope Eyepieces: Power is Not the Only Object Any new telescope should have at least one eyepiece, and some sets come with two or three. An eyepiece is rated by millimeters (mm), with smaller numbers indicating higher magnification. A 25mm eyepiece is common and appropriate for most beginners. As mentioned above, a telescope’s power or magnification is not the best indicator of a good scope. As with the whole, so the parts. A higher power eyepiece does not necessarily mean better viewing. It may allow you to see details in a small cluster, for example, but if its used to look at a nebula, it will only show a part of the object. So, high- and low-power eyepieces each have their place in observing, depending on what interests the stargazer. Its also important to remember that while a higher magnification eyepiece may provide more details, it may be harder to keep an object in view. To get the steadiest seeing in such cases, its important to use a motorized mount. Remember: a lower-power eyepiece makes it easier to find objects and keep them in view. Lower magnification eyepieces require less light, so viewing dimmer objects is easier. Refractor or Reflector Telescope:  Whats the Difference? The two most common types of telescopes available to amateurs are refractors and reflectors. A refractor uses two lenses. The larger of the two is at one end; its called the objective. On the other end is the lens the observer looks through, called the ocular or the eyepiece. A reflector gathers light at the bottom of the telescope using a concave mirror, called the primary. There are many ways the primary can focus the light, and how it is done determines the type of reflecting scope. Telescope Aperture Size Determines the View The aperture of a scope refers to the diameter of either the objective lens of a refractor or objective mirror of a reflector. The aperture size is the true key to the power of a telescope. Its ability to gather light is directly proportional to the size of its aperture and the more light a scope can gather, the better the image an observer will see. At this point, many beginners just think: I’ll just buy the biggest telescope I can afford. Unless they can afford to invest in their own observatory as well, they should probably not go too big when it comes to an instrument. A small scope that can be transported easily will probably get used a lot more than a larger one that takes some effort to haul around. Typically, 2.4-inch (60-mm) and 3.1-inch (80-mm) refractors and 4.5-inch (114-mm) and 6-inch (152-mm) reflectors are popular for most amateurs. Telescope Focal Ratio. The focal ratio of a telescope is calculated by dividing aperture size into its focal length. The focal length is measured from the main lens (or mirror) to where the light converges to focus. As an example, a scope with an aperture of 4.5 inches and focal length of 45 inches, will have a focal ratio of f/10. While a higher focal ratio does not always mean a higher quality image, it often means as good an image for similar cost. However, a higher focal ratio with the same size aperture means a longer scope, which can translate into a telescope someone has to wrestle with a bit more to get into a vehicle for transport to a viewing area.   Get a Good Telescope Mount is worth the money.   The mount for a scope is just as important as the tube and optics. Most people don’t think of that when they decide to buy a scope unless theyve done their homework. The mount is a stand that holds the telescope steady. It is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to view a distant object if the scope is not very steady and wobbles at the slightest touch (or worse, in the wind!). So, its important to invest in a good, solid telescope mount.   There are basically two types of mounts, altazimuth and equatorial. Altazimuth is similar to a camera tripod. It allows the telescope to move up and down (altitude) and back and forth (azimuth). The equatorial is designed to follow the movement of objects in the sky. Higher end equatorials come with a motor drive to follow the rotation of the Earth, keeping an object in the field of view longer. Many equatorial mounts come with small computers, which aim the scope automatically. Caveat Emptor, Even for a telescope. Yes, let the buyer beware. This is as true today as it ever has been in the past. It also applies to the purchase of a telescope. Just as with any other product, it is almost always true that you get what you pay for. A cheap department-store scope will almost certainly be a waste of money.   The truth is that most people do not need an expensive scope, and its better to buy the best one for the budget. However, its also important to avoid getting suckered in by cheap deals at stores that dont specialize in scopes.   Being a knowledgeable consumer is key. Read everything about scopes, both in telescope books and in articles online about what is really needed for stargazing. Go to astronomy club meetings and do a little parasitic viewing (of course, always ask permission), and ask for advice about telescopes. Most members love to give advice, and theres no better way to experiment with different models of instruments. Edited and updated by Carolyn Collins Petersen.

EU Law problem scenario Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

EU Law problem scenario - Essay Example In this similar context, Bekka feels that such acts are irrelevant. Moreover, it has been viewed that she has been also engaged in sale of tinted film which is also restricted for sale in State Y as these products leads to decrease visibility and thereby causing accidents. On the contrary, she admits that such law in State X is indeed not applicable and being a Member State of European Union (EU), laws in both the State i.e. in State X and State Y must be similar. On the other hand Klaus who is married to Haruka, a Japanese national is struggling regarding residence permit. It has been observed that the residential permit of Haruka for State Y was ending and her permit would not be renewed as told by the local immigration office and thus she had to leave the country. In this regard, Klaus strongly realized that being lived in State Y for whole life, it is not justifiable to restrict his wife from living with him in his own country. At the same time, he has been confronted with anothe r problem related with the permission given by Minister for Environmental Affairs about establishment of waste disposal centre adjacent to his property. He firmly believed that such establishment would have radical impact on the flora and fauna of the surrounding area. Moreover, the bad odor released from the waste disposal centre would create significant problem in his hostel business. People are now reluctant to stay in his hostel and further he feels that waste disposal centre should be closed or shifted to another area. Contextually, the paper closely evaluates certain issues of law related with the case of Bekka and Klaus and advise them relating to their concerned matter. Issues Related with EU Law (Bekka) The open movement of goods is one of the critical factors leading towards the success of the EU Member States. The internal business market within the European Union makes easy to buy and sell goods in different Member States. A single European marketplace provides a strong platform in an open and competitive environment1. From lawful standpoint, it can be stated that the principle of free trade of goods is a main element in developing internal business market in the EU. It is viewed to be one of the economic autonomies that frame by the Member States of the EU. The EU defines the scope and content of the principle by prohibiting unjustified restrictions on intra-EU trade. Many of the vital restrictions on free movement of goods have been removed over the years to facilitate smooth functioning of EU trade. The prohibition of any products needs to be justified on the grounds of public ethics, public protection and protection of health as well as life of human, animals and plants. Contextually, member states may possess the right to ban any product on the basis of morality grounds. Therefore, EU law prescribed that goods brought from one state must comply with the national provisions concerning morality factor of the state where the product is being sold . Another important ground for restraint of free movement of goods can be acceptable on the basis of life as well as health of humans. EU law states that any Member States can impose barriers on any kind of products that affects national health and life of human, animal and plants. EU law also ensures safety of customers against deceptive advertisements. EU law also proclaimed that the authorities in one state cannot curtail customers from buying goods of

The relationship of ethical climate Research Paper

The relationship of ethical climate - Research Paper Example The wars fought to be a monarch, the brawls between various political parties, the rivalry for becoming the head of department and the intense competition to become the CEO symbolizes the inborn fancy humans have for Control ,command and to have immense clout to pilot people. This task is however not a piece of cake, while leading and managing people a person is not merely administering a subordinate or an inferior. If we place ourselves in the shoes of a manager or a higher authority, it would be an easy deduction that one has to tackle a substantial array of different ‘’psychological’’ conducts and has to knob the infinite mood swings at times. There are some evils linked with supervision particularly in organizations, the most treacherous to handle is the problem employees. This special clan of people creates problems falling in an either inconsequential category or a colossal group that instigates the employer to take some imperative action instantly. F or instance there are a number of reasons an employee can motivate an employer to show them the door: Insubordination, theft, excess absences and tardiness etc (J, 2006). The high turnover of the employees multiplies the ordeals for the management.   Therefore the employers chalk out diverse strategies to correct the awkward actions or simply opt for the termination approach. But the employee turnover can hurt the overall productivity and is often a symptom of other difficulties. (J, 2006).  ... There are some evils linked with supervision particularly in organizations, the most treacherous to handle is the problem employees. This special clan of people creates problems falling in an either inconsequential category or a colossal group that instigates the employer to take some imperative action instantly. For instance there are a number of reasons an employee can motivate an employer to show them the door: Insubordination, theft, excess absences and tardiness etc (J, 2006). The high turnover of the employees multiplies the ordeals for the management. Therefore the employers chalk out diverse strategies to correct the awkward actions or simply opt for the termination approach. But the employee turnover can hurt the overall productivity and is often a symptom of other difficulties. Other costs of turnover are associated with selecting, orienting and training new workers (Billikopf, 2003). So the healthier alternative is to craft some on-job techniques and corrective measures th at can improve the working ambiance. Details: Around the world the managers and officials are trying to manage the digressions of their problematic subordinates. There are different procedures that are chalked out by people to direct the trouble-creators. For instance confrontation, 360 degrees feedback, termination, environmental upgrading and augmentation in incentives are the few things that are commonly practiced to humanize the negative mind-sets. But if certain sociological theories of deviance are considered profoundly they portray another side of the picture. As in the ‘’labeling theory’’ states that the deviance is socially constructed process in

Data on Fixed Line vs. Cellular Debate Essay Example for Free

Data on Fixed Line vs. Cellular Debate Essay Most wireline phone companies charge more than what youd pay for most alternatives, and some are taxed more as well. There are some locations where getting new wired phone service is prohibitively expensive or even impossible. Long Distance and extra features like Call Waiting are normally included with alternative phones. More Features: Cellular and broadband phones normally include Long Distance, Voice Mail, Caller ID, Call Forwarding and more, usually at no additional charge. They also have Text Messaging and various forms of data service which are unavailable with a landline. Portability: If you move your home more than average (or if its on wheels), your phone and your number can stay with you. There are no installation charges. Temporary Usage: You can have phone service for the season in a vacation home or cabin, or on an extended stay at a hotel or home of a friend or relative without installing a separate line. Internet Access: Your wireless phone can also be your connection to the Internet, either with an internal browser or tethered to your computer, and available wherever there is cellular coverage. Wireless broadband is also available separate from your cellular account. Wi-Fi for Multiple Devices: You can get a cellular modem that provides a wi-fi signal that can connect to up to 5 separate wi-fi devices. Cons: Reliability: Wired telephone services have come as close to 100% reliable as is practical. Their network has substantial power backup, redundant circuits and years to get it right. Alternatives are improving but their networks can vary significantly. Cell sites and other communications nodes have a limited amount of backup power. In an extended power outage, such as after a hurricane or snowstorm, the service may not work, leaving you with no service. Corded phones work in power failures. Cable phones also have a lower level of reliability. Sound Quality: Some alternative phones dont sound the same or as good as a landline. While your alternative phone may sound fine to you, it may be difficult for others. Also, some broadband phone services just dump their audio into the Internet resulting in widely varying data travel times giving you significant sound delays. Lack of Service: You may be in a location where there are no wireless broadband alternatives or may have poor cellular coverage. This might be rectified by adding a cell site to your home. Broadband Speeds: While there are some fairly fast wireless broadband connections, it may be some time before they will compare to wired or cable connections. Malfunctions: Cell sites can stop working for various reasons. Repairs often need to be made on site and may take time. Broadband services require one or more pieces of equipment at your house which you will need to fix if it fails. Wireline equipment can normally be repaired at the central office. Murphys Law says breakdowns will happen at the worst possible time. You Have No Backup: Unless you have an extra cellular phone, if something happens to your main phone or its associated equipment, or your account, you cant just plug another phone into the wall. Inconvenience: Some alternative services only offer a single jack for one phone. If you want service throughout the house you either must go wi-fi or cellular. Otherwise, plan on using the phone near your computer or router. With a cell phone you need to keep it close to you if your home is large or on multiple floors. (The Unwired Home) There are companies that offer the best of both worlds of fixed line and cellular communications. These are just some of the included services offered by the number 1 provider; 1. Price If you plan to use Skype just for calling other Skype users, then it’s free you can even have a small online meeting. Skype also lets you video conference with another person using the free plan. The only drawback is that you cant have a larger video conference on the free plan, as you can only hold a video call with one user at a time. There are no monthly fees to pay, unless you’ve chosen a monthly plan. You can also save on your phone bill by inviting other people who you need to call often to join Skype too. If you prefer to call on a landline or cell phone, you have the option to choose a pay-as-you-go plan, which charges a small amount for these kinds of calls if you call international numbers often, using Skype could work out cheaper than using your office phone. 2. Ease of Use Skype is very easy to install, set-up and begin using. It has a really user-friendly interface that anyone, regardless of their level of tech knowledge, can learn to use. Adding new contacts, sending instant messages and placing calls are all done with the click of a button. It’s also very easy to know if Skype was set up correctly, as the tool has a test call number where users can check if their audio and microphone are working properly. This is great, as there is no guessing whether Skype was installed correctly or not. 3. It is where you are With a number of Skype versions available, you can use it anywhere, from virtually any device. Whether you’re on your office computer, laptop, tablet computer, or smartphone, you can have Skype with you and make free or cheap phone calls from anywhere in the world. This is especially handy if you need to be out and about often for your job, as you can still hold your regular calls from wherever you are via Skype, as long as you’re connected to the Internet. There’s no need to postpone calls just because you’re away from your desk. This is a huge benefit for small businesses as there usually isnt a large number of staff available to take or make important calls at all times. 4. Reliability In the early VoIP days, call quality was bad and calls got dropped often. This kind of technology wasn’t an option for businesses as not only it was very annoying to have calls drop all the time, but it was unprofessional to choose such bad quality services. However, VoIP has improved greatly since then and Skype is very reliable. As long as your Internet connection is stable, you can expect your call won’t get dropped. Furthermore, if the Internet connection is bad for any of the parties, Skype will inform users of that, so they know that the call might get dropped. Skype also encourages users to rate their calls when they’re done, and Skype is continuously improving the reliability of the service. 5. Call quality As a small business, it’s important to choose inexpensive services that are of high quality this is where Skype really delivers. Calls both to other Skype users and landlines are crystal clear, so long as the caller has a good headset with a high quality microphone. Calls to landlines and cell phones get connected quickly, and don’t usually suffer from problems such as echoing or words getting cut off. For the most part, it’s as if users are talking to someone just next to them. And whats better than that for establishing strong and long-lasting business relationships? (Warren)

Rural Homelessness Essay -- Exploratory Essays Research Papers

Rural Homelessness As the Joad family lost its farm and hit the road in Steinbeck's classic, The Grapes of Wrath, so to did America lose its ability to plead ignorance to the problem of rural homelessness. Yet, as the troubles of the Great Depression, and two million homeless Americans, were eclipsed by a world at war, the issue of homelessness was once again placed on the back burner, and then taken off of the stove altogether (Davis 275). Although this problem has seldom been discussed in the sixty years since, rural homelessness is again on the rise and threatens to become the major problem facing rural America (Rural Homelessness). Less than ten miles from the intersection of Sprague and Division in downtown Spokane, the problem of rural homelessness in our own community is glaringly evident. At the intersection of Sullivan Road and Interstate 90, in the Spokane Valley, where drivers are momentarily slowed in their rush to get on with life, stands testament that not everyone is sharing in the American dream. With their worn out Levi's, old coats, and sometime mismatched shoes, the homeless work these corners for handouts like pigeons gathered around an old man on a park bench. These people don't ride out here on the number three bus from the STA Plaza, and they don't commute here in the Geos, Hondas, and Cadillacs that are constantly stopping and going with the changing of the lights. The people that ply these corners with their homemade cardboard "Please Help" signs, are here because this is the closest (and therefore most convenient) corner to where they sleep. A short walk along the rocky northern bank of the Spokane River, west of Sullivan, leads to a camp tucked among the ponderosa's in... ...ousing Assistance Council. Jan. 2001. 4 Apr. 2001.http://www.ruralhome.org/pubs/infoshts/rhomeles.htm Vissing, Yvonne. "Homeless Children: Addressing the Challenge in Rural Schools." ERIC Digest. Jan. 1999. 4 Apr. 2001. http://www.ael.org/eric/digests/edorc981.htm. Wilkinson, Todd. "How small-town America handles rural homelessness." Christian Science Monitor. 16 Mar. 1999. 5 Apr. 2001. http://www.csmonitor.com/durable/1999/03/16/fp2s2-csm.shtml Zimmerman, Julie. "Rural Poverty: Myths and Realities." Rural Development News. Volume 21. Number 1. Mar. 1997. 4 Apr. 2001 http://www.ag.iastate.edu/centers/rdev/newsletter/mar97/rural.poverty.html. Zimmerman, Julie. "Rural Poverty: Myths and Realities." Rural Development News. Volume 21. Number 2. June 1997. 4 Apr. 2001. http://www.ag.iastate.edu/centers/rdev/newsletter/june97/rural.poverty.html.

A Brief History of Hci

A Brief History of Human Computer Interaction Technology Brad A. Myers Carnegie Mellon University School of Computer Science Technical Report CMU-CS-96-163 and Human Computer Interaction Institute Technical Report CMU-HCII-96-103 December, 1996 Please cite this work as: Brad A. Myers. â€Å"A Brief History of Human Computer Interaction Technology. † ACM interactions. Vol. 5, no. 2, March, 1998. pp. 44-54. Human Computer Interaction Institute School of Computer Science Carnegie Mellon University Pittsburgh, PA 15213-3891 [email  protected] gp. s. cmu. edu Abstract This article summarizes the historical development of major advances in human-computer interaction technology, emphasizing the pivotal role of university research in the advancement of the field. Copyright (c) 1996 — Carnegie Mellon University A short excerpt from this article appeared as part of â€Å"Strategic Directions in Human Computer Interaction,† edited by Brad Myers, Jim Hollan, Isabel Cruz, A CM Computing Surveys, 28(4), December 1996 This research was partially sponsored by NCCOSC under Contract No. N66001-94-C-6037, Arpa Order No. B326 and partially by NSF under grant number IRI-9319969. The views and conclusions contained in this document are those of the authors and should not be interpreted as representing the official policies, either expressed or implied, of NCCOSC or the U. S. Government. Keywords: Human Computer Interaction, History, User Interfaces, Interaction Techniques. [pic] 1. Introduction Research in Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) has been spectacularly uccessful, and has fundamentally changed computing. Just one example is the ubiquitous graphical interface used by Microsoft Windows 95, which is based on the Macintosh, which is based on work at Xerox PARC, which in turn is based on early research at the Stanford Research Laboratory (now SRI) and at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Another example is that virtually all software written today employs user interface toolkits and interface builders, concepts which were developed first at universities. Even the spectacular growth of the World-Wide Web is a direct result of HCI research: applying hypertext technology to browsers allows one to traverse a link across the world with a click of the mouse. Interface improvements more than anything else has triggered this explosive growth. Furthermore, the research that will lead to the user interfaces for the computers of tomorrow is happening at universities and a few corporate research labs. This paper tries to briefly summarize many of the important research developments in Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) technology. By â€Å"research,† I mean exploratory work at universities and government and corporate research labs (such as Xerox PARC) that is not directly related to products. By â€Å"HCI technology,† I am referring to the computer side of HCI. A companion article on the history of the â€Å"human side,† discussing the contributions from psychology, design, human factors and ergonomics would also be appropriate. A motivation for this article is to overcome the mistaken impression that much of the important work in Human-Computer Interaction occurred in industry, and if university research in Human-Computer Interaction is not supported, then industry will just carry on anyway. This is simply not true. This paper tries to show that many of the most famous HCI successes developed by companies are deeply rooted in university research. In fact, virtually all of today's major interface styles and applications have had significant influence from research at universities and labs, often with government funding. To illustrate this, this paper lists the funding sources of some of the major advances. Without this research, many of the advances in the field of HCI would probably not have taken place, and as a consequence, the user interfaces of commercial products would be far more difficult to use and learn than they are today. As described by Stu Card: â€Å"Government funding of advanced human-computer interaction technologies built the intellectual capital and trained the research teams for pioneer systems that, over a period of 25 years, revolutionized how people interact with computers. Industrial research laboratories at the corporate level in Xerox, IBM, AT&T, and others played a strong role in developing this technology and bringing it into a form suitable for the commercial arena. † [6, p. 162]). Figure 1 shows time lines for some of the technologies discussed in this article. Of course, a deeper analysis would reveal much interaction between the university, corporate research and commercial activity streams. It is important to appreciate that years of research are involved in creating and making these technologies ready for widespread use. The same will be true for the HCI technologies that will provide the interfaces of tomorrow. It is clearly impossible to list every system and source in a paper of this scope, but I have tried to represent the earliest and most influential systems. Although there are a number of other surveys of HCI topics (see, for example [1] [10] [33] [38]), none cover as many aspects as this one, or try to be as comprehensive in finding the original influences. Another useful resource is the video â€Å"All The Widgets,† which shows the historical progression of a number of user interface ideas [25]. The technologies covered in this paper include fundamental interaction styles like direct manipulation, the mouse pointing device, and windows; several important kinds of application areas, such as drawing, text editing and spreadsheets; the technologies that will likely have the biggest impact on interfaces of the future, such as gesture recognition, multimedia, and 3D; and the technologies used to create interfaces using the other technologies, such as user interface management systems, toolkits, and interface builders. [pic] [pic] Figure 1: Approximate time lines showing where work was performed on some major technologies discussed in this article. [pic] 2. Basic Interactions †¢ Direct Manipulation of graphical objects: The now ubiquitous direct manipulation interface, where visible objects on the screen are directly manipulated with a pointing device, was first demonstrated by Ivan Sutherland in Sketchpad [44], which was his 1963 MIT PhD thesis. SketchPad supported the manipulation of objects using a light-pen, including grabbing objects, moving them, changing size, and using constraints. It contained the seeds of myriad important interface ideas. The system was built at Lincoln Labs with support from the Air Force and NSF. William Newman's Reaction Handler [30], created at Imperial College, London (1966-67) provided direct manipulation of graphics, and introduced â€Å"Light Handles,† a form of graphical potentiometer, that was probably the first â€Å"widget. † Another early system was AMBIT/G (implemented at MIT's Lincoln Labs, 1968, ARPA funded). It employed, among other interface techniques, iconic representations, gesture recognition, dynamic menus with items selected using a pointing device, selection of icons by pointing, and moded and mode-free styles of interaction. David Canfield Smith coined the term â€Å"icons† in his 1975 Stanford PhD thesis on Pygmalion [41] (funded by ARPA and NIMH) and Smith later popularized icons as one of the chief designers of the Xerox Star [42]. Many of the interaction techniques popular in direct manipulation interfaces, such as how objects and text are selected, opened, and manipulated, were researched at Xerox PARC in the 1970's. In particular, the idea of â€Å"WYSIWYG† (what you see is what you get) originated there with systems such as the Bravo text editor and the Draw drawing program [10] The concept of direct manipulation interfaces for everyone was envisioned by Alan Kay of Xerox PARC in a 1977 article about the â€Å"Dynabook† [16]. The first commercial systems to make extensive use of Direct Manipulation were the Xerox Star (1981) [42], the Apple Lisa (1982) [51] and Macintosh (1984) [52]. Ben Shneiderman at the University of Maryland coined the term â€Å"Direct Manipulation† in 1982 and identified the components and gave psychological foundations [40]. The Mouse: The mouse was developed at Stanford Research Laboratory (now SRI) in 1965 as part of the NLS project (funding from ARPA, NASA, and Rome ADC) [9] to be a cheap replacement for light-pens, which had been used at least since 1954 [10, p. 68]. Many of the current uses of the mouse were demonstrated by Doug Engelbart as par t of NLS in a movie created in 1968 [8]. The mouse was then made famous as a practical input device by Xerox PARC in the 1970's. It first appeared commercially as part of the Xerox Star (1981), the Three Rivers Computer Company's PERQ (1981) [23], the Apple Lisa (1982), and Apple Macintosh (1984). Windows: Multiple tiled windows were demonstrated in Engelbart's NLS in 1968 [8]. Early research at Stanford on systems like COPILOT (1974) [46] and at MIT with the EMACS text editor (1974) [43] also demonstrated tiled windows. Alan Kay proposed the idea of overlapping windows in his 1969 University of Utah PhD thesis [15] and they first appeared in 1974 in his Smalltalk system [11] at Xerox PARC, and soon after in the InterLisp system [47]. Some of the first commercial uses of windows were on Lisp Machines Inc. (LMI) and Symbolics Lisp Machines (1979), which grew out of MIT AI Lab projects. The Cedar Window Manager from Xerox PARC was the first major tiled window manager (1981) [45], followed soon by the Andrew window manager [32] by Carnegie Mellon University's Information Technology Center (1983, funded by IBM). The main commercial systems popularizing windows were the Xerox Star (1981), the Apple Lisa (1982), and most importantly the Apple Macintosh (1984). The early versions of the Star and Microsoft Windows were tiled, but eventually they supported overlapping windows like the Lisa and Macintosh. The X Window System, a current international standard, was developed at MIT in 1984 [39]. For a survey of window managers, see [24]. 3. Application Types †¢ Drawing programs: Much of the current technology was demonstrated in Sutherland's 1963 Sketchpad system. The use of a mouse for graphics was demonstrated in NLS (1965). In 1968 Ken Pulfer and Grant Bechthold at the National Research Council of Canada built a mouse out of wood patterned after Engelbart's and used it with a key-frame animation system to draw all the frames of a movie. A subsequent movie, â€Å"Hunger† in 1971 won a number of awards, and was drawn using a tablet instead of the mouse (funding by the National Film Board of Canada) [3]. William Newman's Markup (1975) was the first drawing program for Xerox PARC's Alto, followed shortly by Patrick Baudelaire's Draw which added handling of lines and curves [10, p. 326]. The first computer painting program was probably Dick Shoup's â€Å"Superpaint† at PARC (1974-75). †¢ Text Editing: In 1962 at the Stanford Research Lab, Engelbart proposed, and later implemented, a word processor with automatic word wrap, search and replace, user-definable macros, scrolling text, and commands to move, copy, and delete characters, words, or blocks of text. Stanford's TVEdit (1965) was one of the first CRT-based display editors that was widely used [48]. The Hypertext Editing System [50, p. 108] from Brown University had screen editing and formatting of arbitrary-sized strings with a lightpen in 1967 (funding from IBM). NLS demonstrated mouse-based editing in 1968. TECO from MIT was an early screen-editor (1967) and EMACS [43] developed from it in 1974. Xerox PARC's Bravo [10, p. 284] was the first WYSIWYG editor-formatter (1974). It was designed by Butler Lampson and Charles Simonyi who had started working on these concepts around 1970 while at Berkeley. The first commercial WYSIWYG editors were the Star, LisaWrite and then MacWrite. For a survey of text editors, see [22] [50, p. 108]. †¢ Spreadsheets: The initial spreadsheet was VisiCalc which was developed by Frankston and Bricklin (1977-8) for the Apple II while they were students at MIT and the Harvard Business School. The solver was based on a dependency-directed backtracking algorithm by Sussman and Stallman at the MIT AI Lab. †¢ HyperText: The idea for hypertext (where documents are linked to related documents) is credited to Vannevar Bush's famous MEMEX idea from 1945 [4]. Ted Nelson coined the term â€Å"hypertext† in 1965 [29]. Engelbart's NLS system [8] at the Stanford Research Laboratories in 1965 made extensive use of linking (funding from ARPA, NASA, and Rome ADC). The â€Å"NLS Journal† [10, p. 212] was one of the first on-line journals, and it included full linking of articles (1970). The Hypertext Editing System, jointly designed by Andy van Dam, Ted Nelson, and two students at Brown University (funding from IBM) was distributed extensively [49]. The University of Vermont's PROMIS (1976) was the first Hypertext system released to the user community. It was used to link patient and patient care information at the University of Vermont's medical center. The ZOG project (1977) from CMU was another early hypertext system, and was funded by ONR and DARPA [36]. Ben Shneiderman's Hyperties was the first system where highlighted items in the text could be clicked on to go to other pages (1983, Univ. of Maryland) [17]. HyperCard from Apple (1988) significantly helped to bring the idea to a wide audience. There have been many other hypertext systems through the years. Tim Berners-Lee used the hypertext idea to create the World Wide Web in 1990 at the government-funded European Particle Physics Laboratory (CERN). Mosaic, the irst popular hypertext browser for the World-Wide Web was developed at the Univ. of Illinois' National Center for Supercomputer Applications (NCSA). For a more complete history of HyperText, see [31]. †¢ Computer Aided Design (CAD): The same 1963 IFIPS conference at which Sketchpad was presented also contained a number of CAD systems, including Doug Ross's Computer-Aided Design Project at MIT in the Electronic Syste ms Lab [37] and Coons' work at MIT with SketchPad [7]. Timothy Johnson's pioneering work on the interactive 3D CAD system Sketchpad 3 [13] was his 1963 MIT MS thesis (funded by the Air Force). The first CAD/CAM system in industry was probably General Motor's DAC-1 (about 1963). †¢ Video Games: The first graphical video game was probably SpaceWar by Slug Russel of MIT in 1962 for the PDP-1 [19, p. 49] including the first computer joysticks. The early computer Adventure game was created by Will Crowther at BBN, and Don Woods developed this into a more sophisticated Adventure game at Stanford in 1966 [19, p. 132]. Conway's game of LIFE was implemented on computers at MIT and Stanford in 1970. The first popular commercial game was Pong (about 1976). 4. Up-and-Coming Areas Gesture Recognition: The first pen-based input device, the RAND tablet, was funded by ARPA. Sketchpad used light-pen gestures (1963). Teitelman in 1964 developed the first trainable gesture recognizer. A very early demonstration of gesture recognition was Tom Ellis' GRAIL system on the RAND tablet (1964, ARPA funded). It was quite common in light-pen-based systems to include some gesture recognition, for example in the AMBIT/G system (1968 — ARPA funded). A gesture-based text editor using proof-reading symbols was developed at CMU by Michael Coleman in 1969. Bill Buxton at the University of Toronto has been studying gesture-based interactions since 1980. Gesture recognition has been used in commercial CAD systems since the 1970s, and came to universal notice with the Apple Newton in 1992. †¢ Multi-Media: The FRESS project at Brown used multiple windows and integrated text and graphics (1968, funding from industry). The Interactive Graphical Documents project at Brown was the first hypermedia (as opposed to hypertext) system, and used raster graphics and text, but not video (1979-1983, funded by ONR and NSF). The Diamond project at BBN (starting in 1982, DARPA funded) explored combining multimedia information (text, spreadsheets, graphics, speech). The Movie Manual at the Architecture Machine Group (MIT) was one of the first to demonstrate mixed video and computer graphics in 1983 (DARPA funded). †¢ 3-D: The first 3-D system was probably Timothy Johnson's 3-D CAD system mentioned above (1963, funded by the Air Force). The â€Å"Lincoln Wand† by Larry Roberts was an ultrasonic 3D location sensing system, developed at Lincoln Labs (1966, ARPA funded). That system also had the first interactive 3-D hidden line elimination. An early use was for molecular modelling [18]. The late 60's and early 70's saw the flowering of 3D raster graphics research at the University of Utah with Dave Evans, Ivan Sutherland, Romney, Gouraud, Phong, and Watkins, much of it government funded. Also, the military-industrial flight simulation work of the 60's – 70's led the way to making 3-D real-time with commercial systems from GE, Evans, Singer/Link (funded by NASA, Navy, etc. ). Another important center of current research in 3-D is Fred Brooks' lab at UNC (e. g. [2]). Virtual Reality and â€Å"Augmented Reality†: The original work on VR was performed by Ivan Sutherland when he was at Harvard (1965-1968, funding by Air Force, CIA, and Bell Labs). Very important early work was by Tom Furness when he was at Wright-Patterson AFB. Myron Krueger's early work at the University of Connecticut was influential. Fred Brooks' and Henry Fuch's groups at UNC did a lot of early research, including the study of force feedbac k (1971, funding from US Atomic Energy Commission and NSF). Much of the early research on head-mounted displays and on the DataGlove was supported by NASA. Computer Supported Cooperative Work. Doug Engelbart's 1968 demonstration of NLS [8] included the remote participation of multiple people at various sites (funding from ARPA, NASA, and Rome ADC). Licklider and Taylor predicted on-line interactive communities in an 1968 article [20] and speculated about the problem of access being limited to the privileged. Electronic mail, still the most widespread multi-user software, was enabled by the ARPAnet, which became operational in 1969, and by the Ethernet from Xerox PARC in 1973. An early computer conferencing system was Turoff's EIES system at the New Jersey Institute of Technology (1975). †¢ Natural language and speech: The fundamental research for speech and natural language understanding and generation has been performed at CMU, MIT, SRI, BBN, IBM, AT Bell Labs and BellCore, much of it government funded. See, for example, [34] for a survey of the early work. 5. Software Tools and Architectures The area of user interface software tools is quite active now, and many companies are selling tools. Most of today's applications are implemented using various forms of software tools. For a more complete survey and discussion of UI tools, see [26]. †¢ UIMSs and Toolkits: (There are software libraries and tools that support creating interfaces by writing code. ) The first User Interface Management System (UIMS) was William Newman's Reaction Handler [30] created at Imperial College, London (1966-67 with SRC funding). Most of the early work was done at universities (Univ. of Toronto with Canadian government funding, George Washington Univ. with NASA, NSF, DOE, and NBS funding, Brigham Young University with industrial funding, etc. . The term â€Å"UIMS† was coined by David Kasik at Boeing (1982) [14]. Early window managers such as Smalltalk (1974) and InterLisp, both from Xerox PARC, came with a few widgets, such as popup menus and scrollbars. The Xerox Star (1981) was the first commercial system to have a large collection of widgets. The Apple Macintosh (1984) was the first to actively promote its toolkit for use by other developers to enforce a consiste nt interface. An early C++ toolkit was InterViews [21], developed at Stanford (1988, industrial funding). Much of the modern research is being performed at universities, for example the Garnet (1988) [28] and Amulet (1994) [27] projects at CMU (ARPA funded), and subArctic at Georgia Tech (1996, funding by Intel and NSF). †¢ Interface Builders: (These are interactive tools that allow interfaces composed of widgets such as buttons, menus and scrollbars to be placed using a mouse. ) The Steamer project at BBN (1979-85; ONR funding) demonstrated many of the ideas later incorporated into interface builders and was probably the first object-oriented graphics system. Trillium [12] was developed at Xerox PARC in 1981. Another early interface builder was the MenuLay system [5] developed by Bill Buxton at the University of Toronto (1983, funded by the Canadian Government). The Macintosh (1984) included a â€Å"Resource Editor† which allowed widgets to be placed and edited. Jean-Marie Hullot created â€Å"SOS Interface† in Lisp for the Macintosh while working at INRIA (1984, funded by the French government) which was the first modern â€Å"interface builder. † Hullot built this into a commercial product in 1986 and then went to work for NeXT and created the NeXT Interface Builder (1988), which popularized this type of tool. Now there are literally hundreds of commercial interface builders. †¢ Component Architectures: The idea of creating interfaces by connecting separately written components was first demonstrated in the Andrew project [32] by Carnegie Mellon University's Information Technology Center (1983, funded by IBM). It is now being widely popularized by Microsoft's OLE and Apple's OpenDoc architectures. 6. Discussion It is clear that all of the most important innovations in Human-Computer Interaction have benefited from research at both corporate research labs and universities, much of it funded by the government. The conventional style of graphical user interfaces that use windows, icons, menus and a mouse and are in a phase of standardization, where almost everyone is using the same, standard technology and just making minute, incremental changes. Therefore, it is important that university, corporate, and government-supported research continue, so that we can develop the science and technology needed for the user interfaces of the future. Another important argument in favor of HCI research in universities is that computer science students need to know about user interface issues. User interfaces are likely to be one of the main value-added competitive advantages of the future, as both hardware and basic software become commodities. If students do not know about user interfaces, they will not serve industry needs. It seems that only through computer science does HCI research disseminate out into products. Furthermore, without appropriate levels of funding of academic HCI research, there will be fewer PhD graduates in HCI to perform research in corporate labs, and fewer top-notch graduates in this area will be interested in being professors, so the needed user interface courses will not be offered. As computers get faster, more of the processing power is being devoted to the user interface. The interfaces of the future will use gesture recognition, speech recognition and generation, â€Å"intelligent agents,† adaptive interfaces, video, and many other technologies now being investigated by research groups at universities and corporate labs [35]. It is imperative that this research continue and be well-supported. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I must thank a large number of people who responded to posts of earlier versions of this article on the announcements. hi mailing list for their very generous help, and to Jim Hollan who helped edit the short excerpt of this article. Much of the information in this article was supplied by (in alphabetical order): Stacey Ashlund, Meera M. Blattner, Keith Butler, Stuart K. Card, Bill Curtis, David E. Damouth, Dan Diaper, Dick Duda, Tim T. K. Dudley, Steven Feiner, Harry Forsdick, Bjorn Freeman-Benson, John Gould, Wayne Gray, Mark Green, Fred Hansen, Bill Hefley, D. Austin Henderson, Jim Hollan, Jean-Marie Hullot, Rob Jacob, Bonnie John, Sandy Kobayashi, T. K. Landauer, John Leggett, Roger Lighty, Marilyn Mantei, Jim Miller, William Newman, Jakob Nielsen, Don Norman, Dan Olsen, Ramesh Patil, Gary Perlman, Dick Pew, Ken Pier, Jim Rhyne, Ben Shneiderman, John Sibert, David C. Smith, Elliot Soloway, Richard Stallman, Ivan Sutherland, Dan Swinehart, John Thomas, Alex Waibel, Marceli Wein, Mark Weiser, Alan Wexelblat, and Terry Winograd. Editorial comments were also provided by the above as well as Ellen Borison, Rich McDaniel, Rob Miller, Bernita Myers, Yoshihiro Tsujino, and the reviewers. References 1. 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